Making a Difference: Gender, race and religion
held in Birmingham on 15 May 2002
introduction
This symposium set out to explore different aspects of diversity in relation to gender, ethnicity, race and religion and to consider the practice and policy implications for social care staff working with children and families from current research findings.
Salman Sayyid from Salford University set the scene with a presentation focussed on current theoretical perspectives related to diversity in Britain today; Sara Scott, Principal Research Officer with Barnardo's, explored what is known about gender inequalities and the implications for services for children in need and their families; Jabeer Butt, Deputy Director of the REU (formerly Race Equality Unit), developed the earlier presentations with an overview of research messages related to services that are sensitive to ethnic, cultural, linguistic and religious needs.
Report written by Colleen Eccles, Development Manager, research in practice.
Diversity in Britain today: Patterns and Trends
Salman Sayyid's presentation reviewed current theoretical perspectives on diversity and the construction of identity. He acknowledged that the academic work on the nature of identity presents some difficulties in application to public services but noted that differences in the way that we understand identity to be constructed has changed significantly from the 1970's when there was a strong drive implicit within public policy and services to 'fit' people within a fixed, dominant cultural model. It is no longer possible to build public policy on this model in a world where belief systems, social codes, cultural allegiances and group identities are in a constant state of flux and change.
Individual narratives, that is, how people perceive their identity, are constructed, according to Salman Sayyid on difference, on 'not on who we are but who we are not'. This model of the construction of identity is therefore a relative process with individuals living out the representational model of their own personal narrative in contrast to those who are different, drawing upon social and cultural tools that are available to them to do so.
The emergence of a global culture has also had a significant influence. Internet, television, ease of travel and increased methods of interaction across cultures and continents create societies in which there are not fixed, cultural identities and where you are more likely to find 'differences within differences within differences'. There is no universal model and to talk of a sharp distinction between the 'host' country and the 'immigrant' is no longer accurate. This complexity is a challenge for contemporary public policy which needs to be flexible and responsive to change and diversity.
Gender and Children in Need: A Research Review
Sarah Scott first drew attention to the frustrating limitations of research into social inequality in that so much of it is one-dimensional in its focus. Many studies will consider, individually, gender, ethnicity or age but rarely tackle the complexities of overlapping and interrelated aspects of disadvantage. In contrast practitioners work with individuals or families in which discriminatory outcomes cannot be separated into separate strands labelled sexuality, race or class. This is an illustration of a significant gap between research and practice.
work
Statistical evidence demonstrates inequality across employment sectors and in income. For example 20% of British families are headed by a lone parent (90% of these are women, 75% of whom are on Income Support) ( 18 ), ( 4 ), ( 20 ), ( 14 ), ( 23 ). Amongst lone parents 55% of lone mothers are in part-time work compared to 13% of lone parents. Women working full-time earn on average 82% of the average hourly rate of full-time working men ( 20 ).
childcare and domestic labour
Although research on childcare and domestic labour, often employing different definitions and interpretations, are inconsistent in terms of the numbers of hours spent by men and women in domestic and childcare roles a number of findings are consistent. This is that women do proportionally a far greater percentage of domestic/childcare work, enjoy fewer leisure hours than men, spend less of the family income on leisure and are less likely to have leisure time separately from their children ( 3 ), ( 6 ), ( 10 ) ( 13 ). This, in turn, has an impact on mental health.
According to Sara Scott the national childcare strategy does nothing to challenge the 'gendered loop' by which women are poorly paid to provide childcare for other women. 'Work/life balance' is discussed without reference to gender, and largely in terms of risible non-statutory 'paternity leave' ( 6 ).
sexual abuse
Research also shows gender difference in levels and nature of sexual and domestic abuse. Between 1 in 10 and 1 in 3 girls are sexually abused in childhood and between 1 in 23 and 1 in 7 boys are sexually abused in childhood (depending on the definition of sexual abuse and the age range included)
The sexual abuse of girls is more likely to be perpetrated by family members, to begin at an earlier age and to occur repeatedly. The sexual abuse of boys is more likely to be perpetrated by non-family members, to occur later in childhood and to be a single incident ( 1 ), ( 8 ), ( 15 ).
domestic Violence
Statistical research also provides evidence to show the prevalence of domestic violence and its distribution across gender, ethnicity, age and income. There is also research demonstrating the relationship between domestic violence within families and the impact of this upon children. In Britain 1 in 4 women experience physical violence perpetrated by a partner at some time in their lives. Domestic violence accounts for one quarter of all violent crime. Research suggests that the abuse of women and children in the home is closely related: men who assault their partners are likely to physically abuse their children in up to 70% of cases where there are children living at home. ( 2 ), ( 19 ).
impact on family and children's services
The fundamental research message for children and family services is that family problems will be shaped by gender factors as well other factors such as ethnicity, age, sexuality and social class.
gender influences in responses to stress
"Boys act and girls worry"
Inter-personal and economic stress can lead to a breakdown in family relationships. Boys and girls will demonstrate different ways of managing family difficulties. It is consistently reported that women and girls are more stressed and threatened than boys and men by similar events in their lives, and are more likely to expect the worst in stressful situations. Girls and women are usually more likely to seek help from family, friends and professionals but significantly, their dependence on close relationships makes them particularly vulnerable when those relationships run into difficulty. Evidence like the above gives weight to the idea that there will be a gender differential in seeking out help from agencies such as social services.
( 9 ), ( 17 ), ( 21 ), ( 22 ).
mental health
The recent survey of the mental health of children and adolescents in Britain provides important data on the gender distribution of identified disorders and the ways in which these interact with family stress and disadvantage.
- Among 5-10 year olds 10% of boys and 6% of girls had an identified disorder
- Among 11-15 year olds it was 13% of boys and 10% of girls
- The levels of emotional disorder were the same for boys and girls. The higher rates of boys are to conduct disorders and hyperactivity.
The prevalence rates for mental disorder were considerably greater among children:
- In lone parent families and step-families
- In families with 5 or more children
- Where a parent had no qualifications
- Where neither parent was employed
- Where family income was under £200 per week
- Who had experienced 3 or more stressful life events
crime
Crime is a strongly gendered activity and early interventions with families and young people which fail to take account of the connections between masculinity, 'risk taking', gendered coping strategies and the different treatment of working class girls and boys at home and at school are unlikely to be successful.
- Over four times as many men as women are found guilty or cautioned of a criminal offence
- In relation to crimes of violence against the person which lead to custodial sentences men out number women by over 26:1 ( 16 )
- The peak ages for offending is 21 for males and 16 for females, with involvement declining substantially in the mid teens for young women. For, young men, offending remains at the same level into early adulthood ( 11 )
policy, practice and research
The Children Act 1989 fails to give gender any significance as a feature of either 'parents' or 'children'. Sara Scott argued that the equal responsibilities of parents are emphasised without reference to any inequalities of power and opportunity that individually they may hold. Minimal intervention is thus perpetuated.
Underlying the Act are assumptions about all contact with fathers being positive for children and negotiating such contact being possible and desirable for all parents. Research in this area has provided important evidence of the need for change ( 12 ).
Sara Scott argues that policy which fails to acknowledge gender fails to change the inherent inequalities and that are the site of many of the problems agencies such as social services are seeking to resolve. One of the things research can do is to expose the operation of gender in decision-making and service delivery but such research is unlikely to attract adequate funding if gender is not on the policy-maker's agenda.
Elaine Farmer and Morag Owen conducted a study of decision-making, interventions and outcomes in child protection practice as part of the Department of Health research programme ( 7 ). Their observations illustrate the 'gender lens' of practitioners in action, particularly in terms of the assumption of women's responsibility for the care and protection of their children:
- In over 77% of cases where mothers were held responsible for physical abuse, the child was registered. The same was true for only 48% of cases where a father or stepfather was held responsible.
- Case conferences were often diverted from the original allegation to a more general scrutiny of the quality of the mother's care.
- When an allegation of sexual abuse was made against a male partner there was an expectation that the mother would immediately sever her relationship with him. The difficulty of her position and the complexity of her feelings were rarely acknowledged.
- The impact of investigations was often to intensify pre-existing arrangements in the family such that mothers assumed even more responsibility for childcare (even to the point of giving up paid work). Father-figures sometimes reacted in the opposite way, by opting out of their parenting role entirely) ( 7 ).
A typical pattern in cases of physical abuse by a father figure was for social workers to offer emotional support to the mother and sometimes some material assistance or services to the children intended to reduce family stress. No work with the male perpetrators was undertaken and the responsibility for managing their violent partners was left with the women. The link between child abuse and domestic violence was rarely made.
considerations in gender mainstreaming
- A focus on gender illuminates rather than conceals other dimensions of inequality such as race, class, sexuality and age.
- Genuine participation of service users in collaborative relationships with policy makers, researchers and service providers is recommended.
- Staff need to be provided with opportunities to develop the knowledge and skills to work with an integrated inequalities perspective.
- Consideration of gender is incorporated in specifications for tenders for research and in all monitoring and evaluation of services.
- Serious and explicit commitment to the strategy comes from the highest levels of government.
Meanwhile consideration of gender should be incorporated alongside other inequalities in all aspects of practice development. The research to inform such consideration is plentiful, if inevitably, incomplete.
bibliography
1 . Baker, A. and Duncan, S. (1985) Child Sexual Abuse: A study of prevalence in Great
Britain. Child Abuse and Neglect, 9, 457-67
2 . Bowker, L., Arbitell, M. and McFerron, J.R. 1988 On the relationship between wife beating
and child abuse in K.Yllo and M. Bograd (eds) Feminist Perspectives on Wife Abuse
London: Sage
3 . Bartley, M. Popay,J. and Plewis,I. 1992 Domestic conditions, paid employment and
women's experience of ill-health Sociology of Health and Illness 14: 313-43
4 . Children's Day Care Facilities at 31 March 2001: England, Department of Education &
Skills
5 . Criminal Statistics (1998), London : HMSO
6 . Crompton, R. & Le Feuvre, N. 1996 Paid employment and the changing system of gender
relations Sociology 30, 3: 427-4
7 . Farmer, E. & Owen, M. (1998) British Journal of Social Work 28, 545-564
8 . Finkelhor, D. (1986) A Sourcebook on Child Sexual Abuse California: Sage.
9 . Frydenberg, E. and Lewis, R. 1993 Gender and ethnicity as determinants of coping
Journal of Adolescence, 16: 253-266
10 . Gershuny, J. 2000 Changing Times: Work and Leisure in Postindustrial Society Oxford:
Oxford University Press
11 . Graham, J & Bowling, B. 1995 Young People and Crime Home Office Research Study
145. London: Home Office
12 . Hester, M and Radford, L. 1996 Domestic violence and child contact arrangements in
England and Denmark. Bristol: The Policy Press
13 . Hunt, K. & Annandale, H. 1993 Just the job? Is the relationship between health and domestic and paid work gender-specific? Sociology of Health and Illness 15: 643-64
14 . Individual Income 86/97 - 99/2000 Cabinet Office
15 . Kelly, L., Regan, L. and Burton, S. (1991) An Exploratory Study of the Prevalence of Sexual Abuse in a Sample of 16-21 year olds. University of North London: Child Abuse Studies Unit
16 . Home Office, 1998 Criminal Statistics. London:HMSO
17 . Kessler, R.C. & McLeod, J.D. 1984 Sex differences in vulnerability and undesirable life events American Sociological Review 49: 620-31
18 . Labour Force Survey Spring 2001, ONS
19 . Mullender, A. and Morley, R. 1994 Children Living with Domestic Violence: Putting men's abuse of women on the child care agenda London: Whiting and Birch
20 . New Earnings Survey 2001, ONS
21 . Sieffge-Krenke, I. 1995 Stress, Coping and Relationships in Adolescence Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
22 . Schonert-Reichl, K. and Muller, J. 1996 Correlates of help-seeking behaviour in Journal of Youth and Adolescence 25: 705-732
23 . Women's Incomes over the Lifetime 2000, Cabinet Office
ethnicity, language and religion
Jabeer Butt, from the REU (formally known as the Race Equality Unit) led the final session of the conference with evidence about the social service response to British minority ethnic communities (BME).
context
Statistics show that BME communities are more likely than their white counterparts to live in families with children. Figures from Office of National Statistics suggest that children who are 14 years or younger account for a large percentage (31%) of all BME than is the case for white communities (18%). BME communities are also more likely to have incomes that are below half the average income according to the Office for National Statistics.
contact with services
Jabeer Butt's own research demonstrates that BME communities have far greater contact with statutory 'controlling' services and far less contact with 'supportive' services
Explanations for this situation include:
- lack of information about support available
- inappropriate services (including one size fits all and they look after their own)
- inadequate services (including short-term or limited funding); (cant change the lline spacing here)
- lack of skilled and knowledgeable staff
- racism of staff and other service users
- limited impact of equal opportunities policy and training
- poor past experience leading to reluctance to engage
However, there is also evidence of development of better supportive services. Jabeer Butt presented a set of questions to the delegates, gave possible answers and outlined messages drawn from research by the REU.
research by the REU
| Questions |
Possible Answers |
Research |
In developing your services have you involved or consulted? |
Black and minority ethnic community
Families in the catchment area
Frontline staff and managers |
Our research suggested that while none of the 10 areas in the family centres study could claim that all the centres (or even a majority) were working successfully with black and minority ethnic families, it was nevertheless true that there was at least one centre in each area that was working regularly and effectively. This was one demonstration of knowledge and skills existing at the frontline. The role of the health visitor in providing information and encouraging involvement was often stressed for families with young children. |
| How have you identified needs? |
|
p |
| How have you done this for black and minority ethnic communities? |
Community based surveys or consultations
User based surveys
Secondary analysis of the 1991 Census, as well as local data |
Rare to see any surveys of need. More so when black and minority ethnic communities are concerned. Equally only limited attention to the diversity of communities. Yet there is now considerable national information on the experience of poverty of black and minority ethnic families and children. |
| What have been their conclusions? |
Overall priorities
Change in priorities over time |
Those who have prioritised services in the planning process, are more likely to have services |
| Refer to equal opportunities in children/family policies? |
|
Research suggests that integrating equal opportunities in policy statements around particular services is important |
Are there specific resources allocated? |
Money
Workers or worker time |
When specific resources (particularly workers) are allocated, there is more participation of black and minority ethnic users |
| Do the range of services cover ....? |
Childcare
Educational support for children
Opportunities for safe play
Physical resources such as buildings
User-led initiatives advice, information and advocacy
Opportunities for Asian mothers |
Our work has suggested that there is a particular interest in services specifically directed at children rather than parents. This is likely to have an impact on services developed to support parents in their educational activities with their children. |
| Geographical location? |
The main site is within easy reach of black and minority ethnic communities |
The site where services are delivered is important. Some family centres have developed satellite sites nearer their target black communities to ensure their participation. |
| What is the skills-base and knowledge-base for workers? |
Skills in community development
Relevant and non-stereotypical knowledge |
Research highlights the role of workers is crucial. This is particularly so when attempting to attract users who may not normally participate. This is true for working with boys and men too. |
| Have you prioritised outreach? |
Working in homes
Working with health visitors |
Outreach is important with all black communities, and maybe the only way to contact newly arrived communities. Black and minority ethnic mothers identify health visitors as a particularly valuable source of information. |
| Employment practices? |
Recruitment (includes section 5.ii.d)
Skills
Training |
Again research has shown that there is an association with black and minority ethnic workers being present in a service and the use made by these communities. Beyond being able to communicate effectively, workers knowledge and skills in encouraging participation have been highlighted. |
| User involvement and user-led initiatives? |
|
Research suggests that there is much said about user involvement, but little evidence of its implementation. Our work suggests, however, that where there is service participation by black and minority ethnic users there is more likely to be user ideas generated, and it is more likely for their to be a role in the management and in the delivery of the service. |
| Integration or networking with BME voluntary organisations? |
Working with:
Saturday schools
Religious institutions |
This has been shown to be one short-cut to contacting and encouraging potential black and minority ethnic users. Also an important source of good practice. |
Source: REU, Unit 53 Kings Exchange, Tileyard Road, London, N7 9AH
conclusion
The themes emerging from the sessions concerned with gender, race and religion placed particular emphasis on the interrelationship of diversity rather than focussing on one single aspect of difference. The topics covered in the symposium are all arenas in which inequality and prejudice is sited. One of the challenges to the current research agenda is the need for future studies to be more multi-dimensional in their approach in order to have an impact on inequality and disadvantage. Finally the symposium emphasised the integration of these research messages into the existing processes that are part of the planning and provision of public social services.
|
